\part{Grammar points} \chapter{A1} \section{Determining a noun's gender} As discussed, nouns in italian are either male or female. Knowing the gender of a noun will be important for applying articles and adjectives to nouns, and later replacing nouns with pronouns. There are some patterns one can use to help determine the gender of a noun. Usually nouns ending in a are feminine and o are masculine. There are notable exceptions female -à -ione -trice -ù male -ore -ale \subsection{Irregularities} analisi catalessi epistassi mano ape arma problema tema moquette équipe peluche result of being abbreviations of larger words foto frigo \section{Pluralizing nouns} Italian permits a pluralizing inflection to let a noun refer to multiple instances of an object. In general (there are weird exceptions we will discuss), a noun retains the same gender in its plural. o i e i a e Any other ending remains unchanged in the plural \subsection{Irregularities} uomo uomini bue buoi dio dei ala ali foto foto frigo frigo zoo zoo auto auto \subsection{Irregularities; changing gender in plural} There are instances of words that not only have irregular plurals, but whose gender changes from masculine to feminine in the plural. Interestingly, there are no words that change from feminine to masculine in the plural. braccio dito lenzuolo uovo paio carcere* corno fondamento gesto (in literary sense) muro labbro ginocchio membro filo osso ciglio cervello* centinaio* infradito* \section{Applying articles to nouns} \subsection{Articoli definiti (definite articles)} Definite articles are used to represent a specific, unique (possibly the only) instance (or group of instances) of a noun. For example if I have some books on a table, one particular book being in both the speaker and listener's minds, one can use the definite article to conveniently request a specific book that the context surrounds. This essentially is just the word 'the'. Articles in italian are formed by gender, number and euphonics il la lo l' i le gli singular l' vowel lo male,s il male la female plural gli male,vowel gli male,s i male le female It's interesting to note that Italian employs articles when talking about an abstract concept as an object, so 'Love is blind' is 'L'amore e' cieco'. \subsection{Articoli indefiniti (indefinite articles)} un una uno un' un' vowel uno male,s un male una female \section{Modifying nouns directly with adjectives} \subsection{Gender agreement} \subsection{Plurality agreement} \subsection{Order of adjectives} There are a select few 'grammatical' adjectives that are placed behind the article, however for the most part they either directly precede or procede the noun it modifies. Some adjectives must be before the noun, while others must be directly after, while some can be placed either in front or behind, possibly changing the meaning conveyed. BAGS In Italian, order of adjectives is relatively free, however emphasis changes depending on whether the adjective quality, size, age, quantity usually before noun in ambiguous cases, figurative meaning of adjective means adjective before noun \section{Molto,Tanto} molto tanto \section{Numerals} Depending on one's analysis, one can abolish the numerals part of speech and consider numbers to be nouns or adjectives depending on the use case (i.e whether you are counting something, or considering the number on its own). Our analysis will accept numerals as a part of speech so we can consider all use cases at the same time. Numerals are nouns or adjectives, depending on the context one uses them in. Note that for describing the fact that there is one (1) of some noun, we use the indefinite article, so we only use 'uno' when we have a masculine wordwith euphonic S. uno due tre quattro cinque sei sette otto nove dieci undici dodici tredici quattordici quindici sedici diciassette diciotto diciannove venti trenta quaranta cinquanta sessanta settanta ottanta novanta cento cento e [1<= n < 100 ] mille [ 1< n < 1000] mila milione milion miliardo billion bilione trillion biliardo quadrillion trilione quintillion triliardo sextillion quadrilione septillion quadriliardo octillion quntilione nonillion quntiliardo decillion sei (6) quattordici (14) ventisei (26) quarantotto (48) sessantasette (67) centuno (101) milenovecentoottantacinque (1985) ventitremilanovecentocinquantasei 23956 duecentonovantacinquemilacentosessantotto (295168) tremillionisettecentotrentaseimilaquattrocentosettantacinque (3736475) For euphonics, we merge 1 and 8 with its tens (venti, trenta, quaranta etc.), cento, miliardo, billiardo,trilliardo, quadrilionardo etc. sessantuno (61) sessantotto (68) \subsection{Ordinal numbers} primo secondo terzo quarto quinto sesto settimo ottavo nono dicesimo -esimo \section{Tutti e ~} Mi permetti portare tutti e 8 a casa? Will you let me take all 8 of them home? \part{Verbi and pronomi} \chapter{Verbs I} We're now familiar with noun phrases and creating basic sentences with the copula 'essere', however there are many things out of reach, namely describing actions that occur between noun phrases. We've introduced the copula as a verb representing the action of one noun phrase 'being' another noun phrase. We've also seen the copula link a noun phrase to just an adjective; this behaviour is unique to the copula and no other verb. Introducing verbs will allow us to express more detailed relationships between noun phrases. However due to how verbs work in Italian, it is important that we develop subjective pronouns alongside verbs to understand the bigger picture. \section{Subjective pronouns} Pronouns are used to replace nouns with generic terms that are more context-dependent. Subjective Used to represent different perspectives of who is enacting the verb; the subject. however they grammatically differ from nouns to the extent that they merit their own part of speech. io tu lui lei egli* elle* esso* essa* essi* noi voi loro \section{Introduction to verbs} Verbs and the ways they relate with pronouns are a strong candidate for the most complex set of grammar points in Italian. Because verbs are so intimately related to certain types of pronouns, we develop both in the same section. Verbs are conjugated with respect to the following grammatical categories. \begin{itemize} \item Verb class \item Mood \item Tense \item Aspect \item Person \item Number \end{itemize} \subsection{Italian verb classes} Italian verbs fall into one of three possible groups of verbs called verb classes. Each verb class has slightly different rules for conjugation. The verb classes of italian are the following. verbo di prima coinugazione (1st conjugation verb) are verbo di seconda coinugazione (2nd conjugation verb) ere arre urre orre verbo di terza coinugazione (3rd conjugation verb) ire ire2 \subsection{Mood and tense} Moods provide information about the general nature of the verb, whether it is happening in reality, whether it is an expectation, a possibility, occuring given some hypothesis etc. Italian has the following moods. \begin{itemize} \item Indicativo (Indicative) \item Imperativo (Imperative) \item Condizionale (Conditional) \item Congiuntivo (Subjunctive) \end{itemize} Within each mood, one then inflects for tense (chronological information about when event is occuring) and aspect (nature of how the verb is occuring, habitually, continuously etc.). This chapter will only discuss the fundamental inflections of the indicative and imperative mood. \section{Indicative mood} The indicative mood is a \emph{realis mood}; that is it is used for factual statements (or at least statements that the speaker is presenting to be factual). Every language has this mood, and . Indicative mood is actions occuring in reality There are 5 tenses of the indicative mood from which all other indicative tenses are build upon, however one of them is not as frequent as the rest so we defer it to the next part. We will study the 4 following tenses of the indicative mood. \begin{itemize} \item Presente (Present) \item Passato prossimo (Near past) \item Imperfetto (Imperfect) \item Futuro semplice (Simple future) \end{itemize} \subsection{Presente (Present)} This tense describes actions that happen in general, that happen now, and that will happen in the near future. Near future is a loose term; if you believe it is relatively close, then the present can be used. -----------N---------- -A-A---A-----A--A---A- -----------N---------- -----------A---------- -----------N---------- -------------A-------- \subsection{Passato prossimo (Near past)} This tense describes actions in the near past that have been definitively completed. It places emphasis on that the event happened at a simgle point in time rather than through an interval of time. Intransitive, impersonal, and reflexive verbs have essere as auxiliary to make near past. -----------N---------- --------A------------- In the north of Italy, this tense is used for anything definitively completed in the past, whereas in the south they use a tense called the remote past for such actions. Aspects: perfective, perfect \subsection{Imperfetto (imperfect)} This tense describes actions in the past that were in a continuous state or habitually repeated. Aspects: habitual, progressive -----------N---------- --AAAA---------------- -----------N---------- A--A-A---------------- \subsection{Futuro semplice (Simple future)} This tense describes things that will happen in the future, but not immediate future. -----------N---------- --------------------A- %\section{Negating a verb} %negation of verbs by 'non' %non precedes the vowel directly \section{Reflexive verbs and reflexive pronouns} \subsection{Reflexive pronouns} reflexive verbs; verbs where the subject is the direct object mi ti si ci vi si intransitive verbs; verbs that maytake an indirect object \section{Modal verbs} Potere volere dovere posso parlare giapponese voglio visitare Sicilia devo sconfiggere quest'apprensione \subsection{Adjectival adverbs} Some adjectives can be inflected to become adverbs -amente -emente veloce -> velocemente perfetto -> perferttamente giusto -> giustamente Lui corre velocemente possono cantare perfettamente voglio parlare fluentemente ha scelto saggiamente \section{Imperative mood} Imperative mood is about describing commands. The imperative mood has simply one tense; the present \subsection{Presente (Present)} This tense describes actions given as commands, that should take place during the same timespan as the indicative present and simple future (in general, present, or future). It Since the imperative mood is about giving orders specifically for the listener, it is only conjugated for the 2nd-person or the 1st-person when meant in the inclusive sense (the speaker and the listener being incorporated in the 'noi'). Subjective pronouns are always dropped di' le parole mangiate le verdure lava le mani \subsubsection{Negating with imperative} non usare il telefonino non tradite le vostre mogli %When forming negative for the 2nd-person singular in the imperative, we use the infinitive for euphonic reasons. \section{Fundamental preposizioni} They will represent the ways that a verbo can indirectly relate to an indirect object according to Italian. Granted, there are basic English prepositions that can directly translate unreasonably well to our basic preposizioni, however an inderstanding more rooted in how Italian treats these semantically gives a truly rich understanding of the language. We provide the basic prepositions with rough english equivalents, and then disucss their actual use. in in su on a at con with di of,some da from,since tra between fra between per for Romeo regala un'anello a Juliet Giovanni passa le chiavi a Danielle L'avventura strana di Jojo \subsection{In} \subsection{A} a [infinitive] <-> to [go and do] [verb] \subsection{Con} \subsection{Di} di [infinitive] <-> about [verb] \subsection{Da} fro \subsection{Tra and Fra} \subsection{Per} per [infinitive] <-> in order to [verb] \subsection{Articulated preposizioni} nel nella nell' nello negli nelle sul sulla sull' sullo sugli sulle al alla all' allo agli alle col del della dell' dello degli delle dal dalla dall' dallo dagli dalle \subsection{Euphonic D} There is a rule regarding the words e,a,o. a ad e ed o od \section{Other preposizioni} sotto sopra addosso a dopo di prima di oltre \section{Relative pronouns} che a cui di qui con cui [noun] [relative pronoun] [relative clause] \section{interrogative pronouns} pronoun to represent an unknown direct object used in questioning. che (for things; when category is unknown; what) cosa che cosa chi (for people; who) quale (for selection of things; when category is known; which; which one) We have studied some pronouns, however pronouns that reflect person are intimately linked with verbs and often have unique rules. \chapter{Personal pronouns} We are familiar with subjective and reflexive pronouns, now we will take a look at the more advanced personal pronouns and give examples of how they interact with verbs. \section{Direct pronouns} transitive verbs; verbs that may take a direct object mi ti lo la ci vi li le \section{Indirect pronouns} Some verbs in italian are intransitive where english uses transitive verb giocare a calcio parlare al telefono these are indirect objects, linked by some preposition. Italian has pronouns to represent indirect object mi ti gli le ci vi gli a loro parlo a lei le parlo mando a te ti mando 2more important intranaitives where indirect object and subject ione object are switched with respect to english It is worth mentioning the two verbs 'piacere' and 'mancare'; they are commonly translated as 'to like' and 'to miss', however they function in quite a different way to English. A more grammatically faithful translation is as given below. mancare a qualcuno means To be missing to someone piacere a qualcuno means to be pleasing to someone If you do interpret piacere as 'to like', you swap the subject and direct object to become the indirect object and subject respectively; this trick can be used to mechanically translate, however as always, it is best to learn Italian by getting used to the language. \section{Impersonal pronoun} Used to show that some verb occurs by some unspecified agent, used to show that a verb takes place generally. 3rd person is always used, if the verb is transitive and taking a direct object, 3rd person singular for singular object and 3rd person plural for plural object. si non si vedono i fuochi artifici da questa parte. non si puo' fare! \subsection{With reflexive verbs} when verb is reflexive, we use ci si instead of si si Quando arriva gennaio, ci si diverte un mondo. People have a whole lot of fun once January arrives. \subsection{With copula and adjectives} Durante l'estate, si e' rilassati. \subsection{Passato prossimo with avere auxiliary verbs} auxiliary changed to essere Durante il lockdown si è letto molto. During lockdown, people read alot. \subsection{Passato prossimo with essere auxiliary verbs} auxiliary changed to essere and participle made male and plural. Negli anni ottanta, si e' andati a monopattinare. In the 80s people often went to rollerskate. \part{Advanced} \chapter{Even more pronouns and verbs} \section{Genitive personal pronouns} ne di me di te di lui di lei di noi di voi di loro \section{Instrumental personal pronouns} ci ce con me con te con lui con lei con noi con voi con loro \section{Double pronouns} \section{Impersonal pronoun} si - inflected based on object rather than subject - Always uses essere as auxiliary verb - plural participle used for verbs that normally use essere as auxiliary verb \section{Relative pronouns} %\chapter{Verbs II} \section{Indicative} \subsection{Near pluperfect} \subsection{Anterior future} \subsection{Remote past} Used to describe actions in the far-past that have been definitively completed \subsection{Far pluperfect} Used to describe actions in the far-past that were habitual or otherwise of a continuous nature. \section{Conditional} present past \section{Possessive adjectives/pronouns} il mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs \section{Demonstratives} they can be used as pronouns, but also as adjectives to give distance-based context to an object \section{Demonstrative adjectives} \subsection{Proximal} questo questa questi queste \subsection{Distal} quel quello quella quei quelle quegli questo giorno dura per troppo tempo quest'amore, è un'motore. \section{Demonstrative pronouns} pronoun to represent generic object based on distance from speaker \subsection{Proximal} questo questa questi queste \subsection{Distal} quello quella quelli quelle \section{The copula} We cannot string sentences together yet, and that is because we haven't discussed verbs yet. There exists a verb that is extremely important and we introduce it early. We introduce the verb 'essere' Questa classe è noioso. Il mio amico è grasso. Queste ragazze sono alte. Tom è un mio amico. Tempo è denaro i cani sono animali \section{Comparative, superlative} X più X [article] più X \subsection{Irregularities} buono migliore/meglio il migliore cattivo peggiore/peggio il peggiore When using grande and piccolo in the sense of age, we use the following. grande maggiore il maggiore piccolo minore il minore \section{Absolute superlative} Many of the (except French and Romanian) also have a way of inflecting adjectives to represent the \emph{absolute superlative}. -issimo \section{Equal comparisons} come cosi ~ come tanto ~ quanto ~ \section{Modal verbs} potere volere dovere sapere \section{Quasimodal verbs} Although not modal verbs, we can see verbs affecting other verbs cominciare a stare per (about to) provare a \section{E} and fragole e cioccolato ha ucciso il presidente e fuggito dal paese \section{Non} non mangio spazzatura. non voglio morire, a volta auguro che io non fossi mai nato \section{Più che, Più di, Meno che, Meno di} comparative; più _ di _ comparing adjective with other noun più _ che _ comparing two adjectives meno _ di _ comparing adjective with other noun meno _ che _ comparing two adjectives \section{Il più, Il meno} superlative; indicates il più il meno \section{Troppo} adjective Ci sono troppe persone in questa camera. Non pompare troppa benzina nella macchina. ho fatto troppi errori ieri. adverb la maglia è troppo vibrante, non mimetizzeresti. mamma, la mensola è troppo alta per me, non posso raggiungere la marmellata! \section{Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns} mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro [definite article] [possesive pronoun inflected for gender] A notable exception is that the definite article dropped when talking about a singular family member. la mia giacca Il nostro piano mio fratello il mio tuo suo nostro vostro loro mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs è la mia! non ho un celluare, ma puoi usare il suo. quella gonna è la tua? i vostri obiettivi sono i nostri. \section{Buono, Bravo, Bello, Bene} \section{Set expressions} per favore per cortesia si prega grazie per che ore sono \section{Verbal expressions} avere fame avere sete avere ragione avere torto avere ~ anni fare bella figura prendere in giro non vedere l'ora (di) fare una soffiata (su) \chapter{A2} \section{Presto} \section{Qui, qua, lì, là} qui qua li la \section{Ma, però} Ma -but però -but/though/however \section{Perché} -because -why \section{a causa di/a via di} because of \section{Dove} dove (where) \section{Quando} quando (when) \section{Sotto,sopra, accanto, attorno} \section{dietro, indietro, alle spalle} \section{Avanti, davanti, di fronte} \section{Se} \section{Siccome, poiché, giacché} -since/seeing that poiché -since/seeing that giacché (more formal) -since/seeing that \subsection{Quindi,dunque,cosicché,sicché,perciò} quindi - therefore/sor dunque -therefore/so sicché -Therefore/thus/so \section{Ancora} -still -again \section{Anche, pure, perfino, persino, addirittura} anche -also/even/too pure -also/even/too -more emphasis than 'anche' \section{Neanche, neppure, nemmeno} neanche -not even neppure -not even -more emphasis than 'neanche' nemmeno - not even \section{O} o/oppure/altrimenti %\section{o ~ o ~} %\section{oppure ~ oppure ~} -or né - neither ovvero;ossia -or e appena just \subsection{quando} quando vai in giappone? vieni quando vuoi! non appena as soon as il momento in cui the moment that \subsection{Dove} 3 main uses dove vivono i conigli? sai dov'è seppolto archimede? voglio esplorare dove nessuno è mai stato. portami alla città paradiso, dove l'erba e verde e le ragazze sono belle. benveuto alla città dove non vige la legge un luogo dove si mangia bene è certamente piacevole ad un'italiano. \section{mentre} studo mentre ascolto la musica. \section{prima, dopo} prima dopo prima di dopo di prima che dopo che \section{Quasi} \section{Come} come (how) come (like) ([verb*] come [noun phrase]) come -like -how -as/how \section{Quanto} quanto (how much) quanto (the amount that) \section{Che} 3 main uses Che bel film! Che stronzo! che colore è? che macchina guidi? che tipo di gelato vuoi? La domanda che nessuno ha chiesto la città che non dorme l'autista che ha vinto la gara \section{che cosa, cosa} cosa means 'thing' che cosa is a placeholder for an unknown object cosa is also short for che cosa \section{quale} quale canzone preferisci? non so quale scegliere! \section{Fa (ago)} è nata due giorni fa, che carina! due secoli fa, non c'erano gli auto! \section{Allora} Used as an interjection - in that case/then/well then/so Used to mean 'in that case', 'then' Se nessuna è venuta la notte scorsa, allora perché c'è biancheria delle donne sul nostro letto matrimonio? If nobody came last night, then why is there women's underwear on our marital bed? Used to mean 'at the time' - at the time Allora non pensavo dei effetti, però nella fine si deve risicare quello che rosica. At the time I wasn't thinking about the effects, but in the end you've got to reap what you sew. \section{Prima, dopo} qualche vol Prima before dopo after \section{Scorso, prossimo} Scorso last prossimo next \section{~ di più} \section{Senza} sono entrato senza pagare. lui communica senza dire una parola. cioccolato senza lo zucchero \section{Secondo} according to secondo me, questo fa schifo secondo te, qual'è meglio? secondo gli italiani, i maltesi sono siciliani. \section{tocca a} tocca a me! tocca a lui per affrontare la verità. \section{al contrario} on the contrary al contrario non ha paura \section{qualche volta, a volte} sometimes a volte vado dalla nonna.